Abstract
Higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) are essential in one-to-one classical music instruction, as they deepen students' musical understanding, foster creative interpretation, and cultivate independent problem-solving in artistic contexts. Scholarly research highlights formative assessment as a pivotal instructional practice for promoting HOTS in the classroom. However, Western Classical Instrumental Music (WCIM) instructors often lack adequate formative assessment strategies to effectively stimulate students' HOTS. Addressing this gap, this study developed a framework to enhance HOTS practices in higher education one-to-one instrumental music teaching. The framework was developed through a three-phase design and development research (DDR) approach, comprising needs analysis, design and development, and evaluation. By purposive sampling approach, data were collected from 538 students, 35 WCIM instructors in higher education, and three educational experts using mixed methods, including questionnaires, semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions (FGD), adversarial interpretive structural modeling (AISM), and the fuzzy Delphi method (FDM). The resulting framework features a topology diagram outlining five distinct domains (Identifying problems and proposing potential solutions, Trying to solve problems, Reflections, Summaries, and Transfers), consisting 14 formative assessment strategies. Internal validation confirmed the framework's suitability for WCIM one-to-one higher education settings, demonstrating practical utility in enhancing students' HOTS. A key contribution of this study is its focus on HOTS development in instrumental music pedagogy, which is a relatively less explored area. Additionally, the framework holds potential for broader applications, including practical implication on HOTS development under individualized learning contexts. Researchers call for a broader focus on the development of students' thinking skills in WCIM instruction. This not only boosts students' confidence and ability to tackle challenges in their professional and personal lives but also contributes significantly to the overall development of the WCIM instrucation and industry.