Higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) are essential in one-to-one classical music instruction, as they deepen students' musical understanding, foster creative interpretation, and cultivate independent problem-solving in artistic contexts. Scholarly research highlights formative assessment as a pivotal instructional practice for promoting HOTS in the classroom. However, Western Classical Instrumental Music (WCIM) instructors often lack adequate formative assessment strategies to effectively stimulate students' HOTS. Addressing this gap, this study developed a framework to enhance HOTS practices in higher education one-to-one instrumental music teaching. The framework was developed through a three-phase design and development research (DDR) approach, comprising needs analysis, design and development, and evaluation. By purposive sampling approach, data were collected from 538 students, 35 WCIM instructors in higher education, and three educational experts using mixed methods, including que.....

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